FACTS

the newsletter of LEARNS

Fostering Achievement,
Creating Community Together
for All Our Students

Winter, 2001
Volume 4, Number 1

In This Issue:
Welcome to FACTS!
Alternate Assessment in Maine
On the Web
Assessing All Maine Students
Teamwork for Kids: A Catalyst for Change
What's Happening and How Can We Assist?
An Assessment Strategy: The Child, The Program
Spotlight on Practice
Rethinking Functional Behavior Assessment
The Year In Review
Bringing It Into the Classroom: Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment
How I Spent My Summer!
Third Annual Eastern Maine Child Care Symposium a Big Success!
Teaming and Collaboration: Critically Reflective Work Groups
When We Agree to Agree: A Portrait of Groupthink
Graduate Coursework in Early Intervention/Early Childhood Education

Welcome to FACTS!
It is my pleasure to welcome you to the first issue of our 2000-2001 edition of FACTS, the newsletter of LEARNS. This topical issue is devoted to one of the greatest challenges facing Maine educators today: assessment of student knowledge and skill related to the achievement of Maine's Learning Results.
Questions that characterized requests for technical assistance received by LEARNS from schools around our state last year guided the focus of this issue of FACTS. This issue provides information, strategies, and theoretical frameworks that guide the development of Maine's assessment-including alternate assessment-thereby assuring that we come to understand and measure all Maine students' knowlege and abilities related to Maine's Learning Results.
Other features include a National Youth Leadership Forum report written by UMaine first-year student Elijah Steward, a 2000 graduate of Valley High School in Bingham and a leader in the Maine Adolescent Transition Partnership's youth leadership efforts. A number of new features have been added to this issue: LEARNS Year in Review captures our work from last year, and Spotlight on Practice shares information from the field.
I encourage you to sit back, read, and enjoy this information packed issue! We welcome your feedback and would love to hear from readers who have a "Spotlight on Practice" for a future issue. We welcome any comments you would like to share related to this issue and suggestions for topics you would like to see addressed in forthcoming issues of FACTS.
Debbie Gilmer, Project Co-Director, LEARNS and
Acting Director, Center for Community Inclusion and Disability Studies

Why Focus On Assessment?
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (as amended in 1997) requires that states must demonstrate that "children with disabilities are included in general State and district-wide assessment programs, with appropriate accommodations and modifications in administration, if necessary." Additionally, the state "develops guidelines for the participation of children with disabilities in alternate assessments for those children who cannot participate in State and district-wide assessment programs" effective no later than July 1, 2000.

News from the Center
Lu Zeph, Director of the Center, has returned to Washington DC for another year. As you may recall, Lu spent 1999 in our nation's capital as a Kennedy Public Policy Fellow assigned to Senator Jefford's (R-VT) staff. During her tenure, she assisted in shaping the landmark Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act signed by President Clinton in December, 1999 and the reauthorization of the Developmental Disabilities Act. Beginning on October 1, 2000 she assumed a one-year appointment as Executive Director of the Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation. She will oversee the Foundation's grant programs, direct the Public Policy Fellowship Program and analyze national and international public policy affecting the lives of individuals with developmental disabilities. Some of the issues that she will be working on over the coming year include children's SSI, housing and home ownership, mental health services for children and adults with developmental disabilities, childcare, reauthorization of IDEA, and international human rights issues.

The Center has recently been awarded two U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services grants that are enabling us to expand our efforts on behalf of inclusive education practice in Maine:
o    Standards for All Model: Personalizing Elementary Education is a three year directed research project designed to study, in partnership with two Maine K-8 schools, how to support the Learning Results and state and local assessment for all students, including students with the full range of disabilities. We are pleased to be partnering with the Connors-Emerson School in Bar Harbor and Vassalboro Community School on this important initiative.
o    Leading ME to Promising Futures is a four year model demonstration project designed to support whole school reform in partnership with two Maine schools, consistent with the recommendations of Maine's Commission on Secondary Education as articulated in their report, Promising Futures. The Center is collaborating with the Maine Support Network and the Western Maine Partnership to carry out this effort with our partner schools, Maranacook Middle School and Mt. Abram High School. A unique component of this effort includes the active participation of youth with and without disabilities from these schools in the development, implementation, and evaluation of project activities, including staff development.

Alternate Assessment in Maine

Guiding Our Efforts: Comments and Requests from the Field: Give us strategies, materials, ideas to aid us in the successful inclusion of a diverse population. Let us know if the things we are doing are on the right track.
by Mona Baker

Maine Learning Results legislation sets learning goals for all students and requires a system of state and local assessments to measure student achievement. Federally, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates that children with disabilities be included in general state and district-wide assessment programs. These two pieces of legislation, working in tandem, are guiding the Alternate Assessment component of Maine's Comprehensive Assessment System.
Through guidance provided by the Maine Department of Education, school systems will locally select, adapt, or develop entries for Personalized Alternate Assessment Portfolios (PAAP) for any student who cannot participate in the Maine Education Assessment (MEA) or district wide assessments. The very few students who would require this alternate form of assessment would be individuals who need accommodations that are so significant that content validity of the MEA or district-wide assessments would be compromised. The majority of students who will be eligible for alternate assessments will be students who have Individual Education Plans (IEP's) that address their special education needs. There will be a few students who do not qualify for special education services, but receive other supplemental services (i.e. English as a Second Language and Section 504) who will also require alternate assessments.

The state will provide guidance in the form of frameworks, lists of options, rubrics, policies, decision making, flowcharts, etc. All of the information provided to local systems will build on the purposes and characteristics of Maine's Comprehensive Assessment System and will lead to the assessment of the Maine Learning Results Guiding Principles through the content areas. Connections to other state level initiatives such as the Maine Assessment Portfolio Project will be core to the work.

As part of their local comprehensive assessment system, districts will ensure that all of their students are being assessed toward achievement of the Learning Results. For those few students who do not participate in the MEA, Personalized Alternate Assessment Portfolios will be created with each of the individual entries scored locally using valid scoring tools. Districts will have the year in which the MEA is administered to gather the evidence for the portfolio and do the local scoring (the year in which the child is in the 4th, 8th, or 11th grade).

Districts will bring these Personalized Alternate Assessment Portfolios to one of four regional sites to be regionally scored for inter-rater reliability of the entries and then for a standards review of the entire body of work. The performance levels used will be the same as the four levels used for the MEA: Exceeds the Standard, Meets the Standard, Partially Meets the Standard, and Does Not Meet the Standard. This work will be done by cross-disciplinary groups of local district staff in the spring of the year. Student portfolio performance levels will then be reported to the state to be included in that district's accountability data. To ensure equity across the state, a network of leaders will facilitate regional events. Through this process, all students should either participate in the MEA (with or without accommodations) or participate in the PAAP, resulting in every student being reflected in the district's scores.

The Alternate Assessment working time line (as of fall 2000) puts into place a regional piloting effort during the 2000-2001 school year, a year of intense training and technical assistance during the base-line year of 2001-2002, and full implementation with ongoing regional support during the 2002-2003 school year. This time line works in concert with the legislated time line set forth for full Learning Results implementation of 2002-2003.

For further information contact Mona Baker, Maine Department of Education, at 287-5310 or mona.baker@state.me.us

Alternate Assessment Information on the Web

Maine's Learning Results establish goals for all students' knowlege and abilities, including students with unique learning needs. As well as setting high standards, the legislation also requires an accompanying comprehensive assessment system that must "ensure fair and equitable assessment for all students." Maine's Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) through a combination of state and local assessment, including alternate assessment, measures progress of our students and ensures accountability for our educational system.

The Alternate Assessment portion of the MCAS is included in order to meet the requirements of the least restrictive environment and to ensure full participation of all students in standards based reform. It is intended that any alternate assessments would provide information relative to key performances that represent the most essential features of the educational experience of students with disabilities and other unique learning needs.
Explore the links at http://www.maine.gov/education/mea/aawebintro.htm  to learn more about the Alternate Assessment System in Maine and how fair and equitable assessments must be available for all students.

Some of our favorites On the Web
The Maine Learning Standard
http://www.maine.gov/education/lres/
The Maine Learning Standard is a quarterly on-line newsletter designed to provide information about implementing Maine's Learning Results and articles that include news about programs and professional development opportunities being conducted by local districts and organizations from across Maine. A great deal of information and recent articles cover issues related to Maine's Comprehensive Assessment System.

A-Prompt Project
aprompt.snow.utoronto.ca
"A-Prompt (Accessibility Prompt) has been developed to assist Web authors in improving the accessibility and usability of HTML documents. By checking Web pages for barriers to accessibility and making repairs to correct any problems, A-Prompt will ensure that you are reaching the widest possible audience. A-Prompt is based on the guidelines for accessibility which are created and maintained by the Web Access Initiative of the World Wide Web Consortium."

Kids Quest on Disability and Health
www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/kids/
This very interactive site sponsored by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) breaks down the assumptions and stereotypes surrounding kids with disabilities. Each "Quest" includes a Attitude Checkup; a list of references such as books, videos, and web sites; questions with which students can assess their school environment though the eyes of a kid with a disability; and something just for fun. A section targeted specifically toward parents and teachers outlines how to best utilize the site.

National Early Childhood Technical Assistance System (NECTAS)
www.nectas.unc.edu
This comprehensive site is dedicated to the topic of disability in young children. It offers information for educators of early childhood programs so that they may include children with disabilities in their communities. It also includes a local project finder, information about the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) as it relates to young children, information and resources on a number of Early Childhood related topics, and access to NECTAS publications. All this and the site is Bobby Approved for accessibility!

Assessing All Maine Students

Guiding Our Efforts: Comments and Requests from the Field: We don't have a good grasp on how to modify tests. We need support raising standards so that all students will be working toward the same goals (Maine Learning Results)
By Mona Baker, Betsy Enright, and Pam Flood

As assessment and accountability systems are becoming more important locally and nationally, school districts in the state of Maine are working to develop assessments that give educators, parents, students, and community members a clearer picture of how all students are achieving the standards set by the Maine Learning Results. As part of Maine's Comprehensive Assessment System and in alignment with IDEA 97, all students must be provided with the opportunity to demonstrate achievement of the standards through a combination of state and local assessments.

One component of the Comprehensive Assessment System is the Alternate Assessment. This is a component that should only be used with a very small population of the school community-students for whom it has been determined that the extent of modifications and adaptations necessary would invalidate the Maine Education Assessment or their district-wide assessment. As school districts are preparing for the assessment of all students and full implementation of the Alternate Assessment component at the state and local level, there is work that can be accomplished during the 2000 - 2001 school year. During the 2000 - 2001 school year schools can:
o    Work to maximize accommodations for students at all levels of assessment (classroom, district, and state), striving for the minimum number of students needing alternate state and district-wide assessments.
o    Learn about task development with aligned rubric scoring. The current alternate assessment structure being piloted is a personalized portfolio with individual entries developed and scored at the local level. Learning about task development will provide key foundational knowledge and skills to staff who will later adapt, adopt, or develop the entries in each student's Personalized Alternate Assessment Portfolio.
o    Make sure that staff with varied expertise (i.e. special and regular education staff, specialists, etc.) and experience are at the table to be engaged in the design and development of the Local Comprehensive Assessment System to ensure it includes all students in your school system.
o    Assure that teams involved in making decisions about students (i.e. PET's) are provided with the information and support they need to understand the impact of their decisions as they are related to student participation in state and district-wide assessments.
It is evident that school districts need to educate all staff, community members, parents, and students about the Comprehensive Assessment System and how it can inform decisions about district and classroom instructional strategies and curriculum. This education can provide the opportunity for deeper discussions around how our communities and schools support all students to achieve academically and socially as they grow into individuals who encompass the eight guiding principles of The Maine State Learning Results.

Teamwork for Kids: A Catalyst for Change
by the Maine Support Network

Teamwork for Kids is a special mini-grant program designed to support parents and educators working to assure all students have the opportunity to achieve Maine's Learning Results. The grants allow teams of teachers, students, and parents to connect in creative ways. The outcomes of grant activities should:
o    enhance the cooperative environment in pupil evaluation team meetings and other team work in classrooms, school, and districts;
o    promote students' desire to engage in lifelong learning opportunities; and
o    empower participants to change team behavior, based on new learning and understanding.
The Teamwork initiative is made possible through funds provided under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The grants are promoted and administered by the Maine Support Network under contract to Special Services, Maine Department of Education.
Teamwork grants can be used in numerous ways to support a wide variety of activities. Teams can choose to use the money for one activity, support several events, or join efforts with other districts on regional initiatives.
The Maine Support network maintains an outstanding web site (www.mainesupportnetwork.org), which includes information about every grant awarded.
Once teams have launched Teamwork activities, completed their projects, and learned from their successes, districts can apply for special Ripple spin-off grants. This allows teams to follow up their work by sharing their knowledge with teams from other classrooms or schools.
With Ripple grants teams can identify and replicate the first Teamwork grant activities, develop new ideas based on previous learning, or take the show on the road to a new district.
Teamwork for Kids has funded successful initiatives across the state. If your district doesn't have a Teamwork grant, chances are that there is a hot team working near you that can lend a hand to help with grant writing.
Applications for Teamwork for Kids grants are sent to every district annually, plus the application is available on line at The Teamwork Web Site or on diskette. Special Services Program Review teams also distribute copies of the grant application during the Program Review visits and workshops.
For more information about the Teamwork for Kids initiative contact the Maine Support Network at (207) 685-3171 or teamwork@mainesupportnetwork.org

What's Happening and How Can We Assist?

Guiding Our Efforts: Comments and Requests from the Field: Help us increase the awareness of staff on the many learning styles in any classroom and the need to modify and address teaching methods as we are responsible for all learners.

During the year 2000 - 2001 LEARNS staff is providing technical assistance in the form of guidance and support to four pilot sites ( MSAD 64, MSAD 52, Union 122, and the Sanford school system) who are field testers, generating system wide information and samples to document and ensure the technical soundness of the alternate assessment model and materials.
by Mona Baker

In an effort to recognize and build on good practice and to change outdated practice, the Department of Education has developed the following plan to provide information, support, and resources to school systems. In order to ensure that the progress of all students toward achieving the Maine Learning Results is measured and becomes part of the accountability system, it is clear that the Comprehensive Assessment System must include an Alternate Assessment Component. This component would be available to the small number of students who cannot participate in the Maine Education Assessment (MEA) or district wide assessments due to the degree of accommodations they require. For students who need accommodations that are so significant that content validity of the assessment is affected, alternate forms of assessment must be provided. In order for teachers, schools, and systems to be prepared to provide students with these individualized assessments, new knowledge and skills may be required. To deliver this support a multifaceted approach will be used.
For the first year, the focus will be on providing introductory information, awareness level knowledge, and foundational resources to a wide audience. This will be accomplished through collaboration with existing groups, organizations, and associations as they connect with their specific stakeholder groups. (i.e. MADSEC, MPA, Rural Support Network, MPF, LEARNS, University Partnerships etc.). This may take the form of presentations, handouts, newsletter articles, etc.
The next phase of this effort will be to provide more intense training to cross-disciplinary teams in four different regions of the state. These regions would mirror the current Maine Assessment Portfolio Pilot (MAP) regions and be facilitated by people in stipend positions from the region. It is anticipated that these people would build relationships with the teams from the region by bringing them together 3-4 times per year for 3-5 years.
As systems begin to increase their abilities to select, adapt, and develop alternate assessments and then subsequently reliably and validly score them, it is likely that individual districts will want and need targeted technical assistance. These needs will be locally identified and locally funded. The Department of Education will act as a broker to assist districts in connecting with currently existing sources of support (i.e. private consultants, LEARNS, MADSEC, etc.)
An ongoing aspect of support will be the contribution of alternate assessment information in a "Resource Bank" for Comprehensive Assessment Systems. These resources would include materials posted or accessed on the web, books, videos, articles, tool kits, brokering lists, connections to programs, etc. This collection of people, programs, and resources would be continuously updated and expanded.
Through these various strategies, it is anticipated that school systems will get the support they need to ensure that all students are working toward the achievement of Maine's Learning Results and that their progress is measured validly and reliably.
For further information contact Mona Baker, Maine Department of Education, at 287-5310 or mona.baker@state.me.us

An Assessment Strategy: The Child, The Program (from Creating Inclusive Early Care Communities: Building a Foundation for Cooperative Behavior)
by Linda Labas, Martie Kendrick, Colette Bilodeau, Kathy Son and Theresa Gooldrup

The assessment phase is a component of positive supports. Gathering information about the individual, as well as the program and the people caring for and educating a child, helps the team design appropriate supports. Learning to ask good questions is a critical skill for early care professionals, which can lead the team to abundant, useful information about the child. Doing regular, ongoing observation is another essential skill. There are many ways to observe young children. Early care educators can observe and record through anecdotal recordings (note taking, journals, and logs), direct observation using checklists or compiling assessment information, and developing individual portfolios.
Following are some examples of questions that can help to guide the assessment process.
o    What are the child's strengths, temperament, gifts, and talents?
o    What are her needs?
o    With whom does he prefer to play?
o    How does the child enter into play with others?
o    What play materials does the child typically use? How does she use them?
o    What roles does the child take on: leader? follower?
o    How long does the play interaction usually last? What happens next?
o    How does he communicate?
o    Which activities capture her fancy?
o    Is there a particular staff person this child has a caring relationship with?
o    Are there particular areas in the program that this child has difficulty in?
o    How does he manage transitions?
o    How does she handle conflict with another child?
After recording the individual assessment information, look at the individual in the context of the program (Donnellan, Mirenda, Mesaros, and Fassbender, 1984).
Below are some questions the early educator might ask:
o    What are the physiological factors that affect this child?
o    How does the classroom environment (physical) impact this child?
o    Are the curriculum and instruction in this classroom attuned to the child's learning style, skill level, interests, etc.?
o    Are there family/home factors/changes that are having an impact on the child?
o    Of what quality are the child's relationships?
(Adapted Donnellan, et al. 1984)
Although the factors are listed separately, there is actually a dynamic interplay between each, and the child's physiological status impacts the way she responds to the classroom environment, which affects the types of curriculum and instruction that are most effective and/or impacts relationships in both the home and school setting (Thelen and Smith, 1995). Again, answering these assessment questions will direct the next steps in developing the supports necessary to address the implied need. If, for example, a child has sensory issues (physiological factor) and is very reactive to touch, the caretakers may want to consider how to protect him during circle time (curriculum) or explain to other children how to approach him (relationships). This example also serves to demonstrate the importance of focusing on the things in the child's environment that the caretaker can change (i.e., curriculum and his own practice) and not reacting to or punishing the child for exhibiting behaviors that may be beyond her control (i.e., neurological conditions that cause sensory defensiveness).
o    Using the template provided staff can examine how the physiological, environmental and interpersonal factors effect the behavior of a particular child within their program.
o    Using this information, the team can then identify the supports needed to assist this child.
Assessment Planning
The Child, The Program, The Plan
Who is? (Use the questions from the Assessment Strategy):
What are the physiological factors that affect this child?
How does the classroom physical environment impact this child?
Is the curriculum & instruction attuned to this child's learning style, skill level, interests?
Are there family/home factors/ changes that are having an impact on this child?
What are the child's relationships? Of what quality are they?
Using this information, what supports can be included to assist this child? What skills must be taught? What adaptations should be made in the curriculum, instruction, assessment?

Spotlight on Practice - A Brief Overview of the Work Sampling System(c)
by Karen Thomes

Samuel Meisels, Ph.D. of the University of Michigan, School of Education, created the Work Sampling System(c) Materials, which have been developed for preschoolers, age three, through students in fifth grade. The Work Sampling System(c) (WSS) is a performance-based assessment tool that relies on teacher observation and documentation of children's performances and products or work samples. The system guides provide specific criteria for teacher observations, procedures, and documentation. The integral parts of the system are: Developmental checklists, Summary narratives, and Portfolios.

At each grade level the developmental checklist is divided into seven domains, each of which is broken into two components. The performance indicators include: Personal and Social development, Language and Literacy, Mathematical Thinking, Scientific Thinking, Social Studies, Art and Music, and Physical development.

It is a trimester system. The reporting periods are fall, winter, and spring, and the performance checklist indicators include: Not Yet, In Process, Proficient.The portfolio entries reflect the areas assessed in each collection period. The reporting tool is the summary narrative. It is a synthesis of the teacher's observations, the checklist, and the portfolio. The narratives are shared with families at the end of each collections period, which is at the end of each trimester.

Portfolios are maintained at school, and form and content are decided on the school level. Suggestions for the work sample collecting and storage are in the program guidelines.

WSS is aligned with the National Standards and, therefore, can be translated into the Maine Learning Results. It is suggested that districts concentrate on aligning one or two curriculum areas a year encompassing preschool through grade five.
The Work Sampling System(c) requires that a teacher observe objectively, annotate conscientiously, and select work samples indicative of a child's acquisition of skills. It is a time consuming but rewarding endeavor that reflects both the affective and cognitive development of a child.

Indian Island School, pre-K through 8th grade, adopted the Work Sampling System(c) six years ago. It is used in grades pre-K through 5, with the middle school in the process of implementing the portfolio portion of the system. Initial training took place for some staff during a summer session with follow-up for all staff the subsequent fall. Introductory training involved instruction in the mechanics of the system, practice in objective observation, and the keeping of anecdotal and observational records. The school switched from four quarters to three trimesters.

As with any new system, there has been a transition period that requires the rethinking of some procedures. Moving from letter or numerical grades to narrative reporting can be a difficult adjustment for staff, families, and students. For staff, there is the familiarization period with the materials, and a need to develop personal organization procedures for the recording of observations and anecdotal notations. There is a consideration of other forms of authentic assessment, the alignment of WSS with the Maine Learning Results, the determination of benchmarks, and the decision as to what work samples will constitute core items for inclusion in a child's portfolio. Once the benchmarks are decided upon, rubrics need to be developed to assure reliability and validity.

There is much teamwork involved in creating an assessment system, especially in light of the fact that a system is always evolving to accommodate changes in students' needs, teacher expectations, curriculum updates, and discovery of better ways to accomplish goals. Staff members need to keep informed of each grade level's expectations and to be diligent in selecting work samples for portfolios that truly reflect a child's learning progression.

Is it worth it? I think, because of the time and work involved in developing and maintaining an effective assessment system, some parents and teachers wish for the "old days," prior to using alternate assessments. Can it be an effective vehicle for documenting student work? Most definitely, if standards and varying forms of assessment are utilized: checklists, standardized tests, writing samples, reading running records, chapter tests, etc. Is it a system that can be used for all students? Again, yes. Because of the narrative format and the use of individual work samples, the reporting component allows for discussion of students of all abilities.
At Indian Island School there is ongoing dialogue around the Work Sampling System(c). Although it has been in use for some time, there continues to be a need to discuss, adapt, and revise. Because of the nature of the assessment process and the commitment to teacher accountability, collaboration is essential to student achievement.

More in depth information and training in the Working Sampling System(c) are available through Rebus Planning Associates, Inc., 1103 South University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104, (313) 668-4870.

Karen Thomes, Indian Island School, Early Childhood Program, 827-4285, kthomes@iis.bia.edu

Rethinking Functional Behavior Assessment

Guiding Our Efforts: Comments and Requests from the Field: I came expecting to gain knowledge on how to best help and serve students with behavior problems and I not only got ideas to help these students but I better understand the complexity of why students act inappropriately and way to look for causes.

Alan Kurtz

A Pupil Evaluation Team uses Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) for two reasons. First, it helps them understand why a particular student may engage in challenging behavior. Second, the team uses the information they obtain to determine how they can modify the environment in order to decrease the likelihood of the behavior in the future. They may ask: "What occurs after the behavior that may be reinforcing it?" and "How can we change the consequences maintaining the behavior?"
In this article I suggest that this focus on consequences limits our ability to understand behavior. It reflects a perspective that assumes students do things primarily because they have been reinforced for those things in the past. I argue that we need to be more future-oriented and assume that people do things because they are motivated to satisfy a need, and that this orientation can be incorporated into FBA.

Typically, FBA consists of a number of steps briefly outlined here:
1)    Define the behavior in measurable and observable terms.
2)    Observe the behavior over time.
3)    Identify environmental variables whose presence seems to affect the likelihood that the behavior will occur.
4)    Identify environmental variables that are present after the behavior occurs that may be reinforcing the behavior.
5)    Develop a hypothesis regarding the function of the behavior.
6)    Manipulate those variables to test the hypothesis.

FBA grew out of B.F. Skinner's (1953) operant conditioning behavioral paradigm. Operating within this paradigm, behaviorists tend to focus on "reinforcers" that occur after a behavior affecting the probability that it will occur again. People do not behave to get something; instead they do it because they have been reinforced for the behavior in the past (Freeman, Anderson, Azer, Girolami, & Scotti, 1998). For most behavior analysts, then, motivation is an irrelevant "internal event" or "hypothetical construct" (Skinner, 1987). Behavior analysts usually limit their analysis to behaviors that are directly observable and measurable.

In reality, FBA always requires subjective judgements, creativity, and empathy. I believe that this is true for even the most ardent behaviorists. The practitioner's previous life experience, values, and empathy for the student influence her analysis. Among many aspects of FBA affected by the practitioner's subjective beliefs and previous experience are one's choice of which of millions of environmental variables to observe, the formation of hypotheses, and how the hypothesis will be tested.

It is important to both recognize and embrace empathy in FBA. Our ability to think about motivation can enhance that creative process. Our shared humanity allows us to imagine another's reasons for behaving and to develop effective support plans based on our understanding of their motivation.

One way of examining motivation is to think about unmet needs. I agree with Pitnonyak (1993) who suggests that we can understand challenging behavior as a way for students to satisfy unmet needs. While unmet needs are not directly observable, we can develop testable hypotheses about behavior based on the presumption of their existence.

A number of authors have developed frameworks for understanding fundamental or universal human needs. When trying to understand why a behavior occurs we can use those frameworks to develop hypotheses about the function of behavior.
Glasser (1986) postulated "needs" that drive everyone. These include the needs to survive and reproduce; belong and love; gain power; be free; and to have fun.

Maslow (1970) developed a "pyramid" in which some basic needs must be met before other needs could be satisfied. In order of importance were physiological needs (shelter, food and water), safety, belonging and love, self-esteem, and self-actualization.
When trying to determine why a person behaves in a particular way, we can look at unmet needs. We can ask: "What needs is the person trying to satisfy?" or "What supports can we provide that will ensure that these unmet needs are satisfied?" In answering these questions we can develop testable hypotheses. These are not questions typically asked by professionals conducting FBA. I believe though, that consciously or not, most professionals think about motivation and needs when as they narrow their search for explanations for behavior.

I encourage teams to think about the unmet needs of their students with challenging behavior. By looking at universal needs you may gain profound insights into those things missing from your student's life that he may be trying to attain through his behavior.

References
Freenman, K.A., Anderson, C.M., Azer, R.H., Girolami, P.A. & Scotti, J.R. (1998). Why functional analysis is enough: A response to Reiss and Havercamp. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 103, 80-91.
Glasser,W. (1986). Control theory in the classroom. New York: Perennial Library.
Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Rowe.
Pitonyak, D. (1993). Supporting Individuals with Challenging Behavior. Richmond, VA: Virginia Commonwealth University, US Department of Education.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: The Free Press.
Skinner, B.F. (1987). Whatever happened to psychology as a science of behavior? American Psychologist, 42, 780-786,

Addressing "David's" Unmet Needs

David's (not his real name) teachers reported that there were a number of behaviors that made his continued participation in the classroom problematic. The two most serious problems from his teachers' perspective were 1) leaving the classroom or school without permission, and 2) aggression in some social situations.
When we talked to David he indicated that he liked school and that he really enjoyed being there. One of the things he liked most was being able to hang out with his friends. It seemed unlikely that he was leaving the classroom because he did not want to be there.

We also observed that aggression occurred when David's attempts to interact with other kids were rebuffed. Unexpected changes in his schedule could also cause problems.

In trying to understand the reason's for David's behavior we thought about some of his possible needs. As a result we developed several hypotheses:
o    David needs friends.
o    David needed to be able to make some choices and have control over his day.
o    David often gets frustrated in class-both when he has difficulty with academic work and when he gets picked on-and he needs frequent breaks to deal with his frustration.
o    David needs some predictability in his daily schedule.

A plan was developed that would address each of these needs. The last three needs were fairly easy. David and his teachers developed a way for him to indicate that he needed a break and was allowed to leave the room when he asked. Also David and his teachers used a written schedule to help David continually review his day and he was given choices in his schedule throughout the day.

The task of helping David make friends was more complex. It was clear that this issue had to be addressed collaboratively by many different people from his school community and his family. For that reason we recommended a MAPS (a collaborative student-centered planning process) to explore some of the issues related to David's need for friends.

While we focused on David's unmet needs, we did not rule out more traditional ways of understanding behavior. Applied behavior analysis, with its focus on reinforcement does have its place. In David's case, for example, it was clear that he sometimes refused to do things because he was reinforced by the arguments that ensued. Working from that hypothesis we asked people to stop arguing with him. The incidents of refusal quickly declined.

We also recognized though that David had a need for some control over his school day. By building choice into his day we also addressed a fundamental need that had not been met. Together, the elimination of the arguing that reinforced the behavior and meeting his need for control were very effective.

LEARNS 1999 - 2000: The Year In Review

Goal: All Maine students with disabilities five to twenty years of age (including students with challenging behavior, deafblindness, severe communication impairments, autism and multiple disabilities) will be assured access to meaningful and high quality education in the general education curriculum in order to achieve the high standards articulated in the Maine's Learning Results. All Maine students will participate in state and local assessment.

In support of the achievement of this ambitious goal, LEARNS responded to more than 100 requests for technical assistance, staff development and information/resources related to inclusive educational practices from schools, parents, including foster and surrogate parents, faculty members from our institutions of higher education, university and college students and others from throughout the state.

This Year in Review shares only some of the activity that comprised our effort to support local educators, administrators, students and parents in their pursuit of high quality and meaningful education for all. On-site technical assistance, information dissemination, staff development activities and phone support were conducted for educators representing more than 80 school administrative districts across the state.

LEARNS Early Childhood will be the focus of the Spring 2001 issue's Year In Review feature.

Technical Assistance to Maine Schools
o    On site consultation, support and staff development activities were conducted in more than 50 school districts by members of the LEARNS team
o    Topics included aligning curriculum, instruction, and assessment; positive behavioral supports; augmentative communication; alternate assessment; administrative team planning; and student centered planning.
o    Additionally, technical assistance was provided to another 30 schools, more than 70 parents, and numerous community organizations including the Girl Scouts and community recreation departments.

Collaborating with Higher Education in support of Personnel Preparation
More than 15 courses or lectures were delivered to students in a variety of classes (general education, special education, therapeutic recreation, and nursing) at UMaine, USM and Simmons College

Topical Workshops conducted by LEARNS staff
o    Developing Assessment for All Learners: Assessment Using Descriptive Feedback to Inform Instruction
o    Integrating Related Services: Integrating Related Services into the General Education Curriculum
o    Improving Learning and Outcomes for All Secondary Students
o    Implementing Maine's Special Regulations: Progress and Achievement in the General Education Curriculum
o    Addressing Challenging Behavior in the Regular Classroom Setting day long workshops (in collaboration with the Maine Department of Education's SAT unit and conducted three times to sold out audiences)

Conferences and Workshops
Co-Sponsored by LEARNS
o    Northeast Regional Conference on Autism: Movement Differences in Autism featuring Anne Donnellan and Martha Leary
o    Maine Montessori Association: Supporting All Children in Montessori Education: Issues and Challenges
o    Maine Support Network Winter Retreat 2000: Celebrating the Millennium: Supporting Respectful and Responsible Learning Communities
o    With MADSEC, COT, and the Maine Department of Education: Best Practices and Legal Requirements
o    Maine Support Network: Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders
o    Maine Developmental Disabilities Council: 12th Annual Family Support Conference
o    TASH New England: Life's Lessons on Community Living

Quotes from the field
o    "Thank you, I've gained new ways to look at why children act as they do and to evaluate their needs and a renewed perspective on making school student-centered."
o    "I better understand the complexity of why students act inappropriately and ways to look for causes."
o    "More information than I had hoped for: lots of strategies for helping students to be successful and feel better about themselves, actual ideas to give other teachers, good assessment strategies."
o    "The presenters were great, interesting, and dynamic"
o    "The content was useful and pertinent"
o    "This clarified information regarding the new regs for me."
o    "The use of rubrics-awesome ideas. Already use some, but am motivated to develop more."
o    "Realistic ideas were shared that will help me use this at school"
o    "My time spent here was valuable."
o    "Thorough, complete and knowledgeable presenters."
o    "Keep up the awesome job!"
o    "How can this communication (among our team here today) be an ongoing part of our days and weeks?"

Two Issues of FACTS developed and disseminated to more than 20,000 Maine educators, parents and others
o    "Of real interest to me were the comments and questions throughout your newsletter concerning educational reforms relating to inclusion, specifically the standardization of education. This is a real concern for many of my colleagues and I who work closely with students in the public school."
o    "This issue is the most comprehensive ever and I agree with what you stated so eloquently in 'Creating Safe Schools.'
o    "I also enjoyed the article about Lenny. In the snapshot his pride and confidence come shining through. Great issue!"
o    "Great issue! Thanks for sharing it!"
o    "So much is changing in our schools-appreciate the valuable information that you share!"

Workshops: Information Dissemination and Partnership Development
o    Maine Association of Middle Level Educators: Creating the Inclusive Middle Level Classroom
o    Mid Maine Sexual Assault Support Services: Disability Awareness
o    Maine Adaptive Physical Education Conference: Learning Results for All Students
o    GEAR Parent Network: Inclusive Education, Transition Issues and Positive Supports
o    Maine Advisory Council on the Education of Children with Disabilities: IDEA and the Maine Learning Results-Implications for Students with Disabilities
o    The New High School: Program Development and Inclusive Schooling
o    Maine Education Association Conference: IDEA and Maine's Learning Results: The New Role of the Special Educator and Access to the General Education Curriculum: Teaching to Accommodate Diverse Learners

ITV sessions conducted by LEARNS staff
o    Promising Practices: Supporting High Quality Inclusive Early Childhood Programs
o    Building a Supportive Middle/High School Culture that Recognizes and Respects Diversity Part 1
o    Facilitated Communication: How Physical Supports Assist Some Individuals with Severe Disabilities to Access Communication Devices
o    Building a Supportive Middle/High School Culture that Recognizes and Respects Diversity Part 2

Bringing It Into the Classroom: Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment

Guiding Our Efforts: Comments and Requests from the Field: Help our staff so that all teachers will know better how to meet the needs of every child's learning in the classroom.

How do you successfully blend socialization, academic achievement, and functional life skills?

This is the title of the third section of the Foundations of Inclusive Education: A Staff Development Guide published by the Center for Community Inclusion in 1999. A copy of this staff development guide was sent to each school district in the state in the fall of 1999. Below are excerpts from the guide.

As we move through the process of developing a common philosophy of inclusive educational practices, and learning new methods of gathering information through student centered planning, the next step is assuring that all students succeed in the classroom. With increased attention being placed on educational reform, including a stronger focus on academic excellence and accountability, improving the effectiveness of instruction for all students at all academic levels has received considerable attention. Practices that involve active and authentic learning, multiple intelligences, performance based assessments, and action research can help to transform schools into student centered places of inquiry and learning. Interactive experiences such as cooperative learning are often cited as supporting promising outcomes for elementary and high school students and have emerged as methods to study within early childhood education.

One-size-fits-all instructional approach is being replaced with instruction that is appropriate for a variety of learning styles, that is interactive, and that motivates learners. The newer approaches to instruction, in which diversity is not only recognized but valued and affirmed, are the most likely to be successful in teaching all students, including those who have labels such as "disabled", "at risk", and "difficult to teach" (Falvey & Givner, 1996, p. 10).

For educators creating classroom communities where all students can achieve to high standards and have equal opportunities to learn involves broadening assessment and teaching methodologies. In heterogeneous classrooms, students vary by ability, experience, background, gifts, talents and needs. Some students will require more support, more time, more practice, adult help, or adaptive equipment. Others may need more flexibility to explore a topic in depth, more adult mentoring, or varied opportunities to work both individually, as well as cooperatively with peers. To effectively address the diverse and changing needs of all students, instruction and assessment must be planned pro-actively.

The first task is to know students well, know their needs, styles, and attitudes so that lessons planned can be successful. This is the opposite of adapting lessons after students have failed, or amending pre-planned ones. This process involves team planning, identifying the underlying concepts in each unit, and personalizing goals and supports. Assessment information informs instruction and drives the development of personalized, strength driven, instructional plans (for IEP/IFSP, etc.), using the classroom curriculum as a base for all students (Enright, Fairman, Gilmer, Kendrick, Labas, Son, Timberlake, & Zeph, 1999 pp. 3-3 & 3-4)."

Inclusive Educational Practices: An Assessment Template for Teachers and Parents
Maria Timberlake

The following questions can be answered for a specific student or groups of students.
o    Is the student in classes with his/her grade level peers? In other school spaces i.e. cafeteria, bus, computer lab...?
o    Does s/he arrive and depart at the same time?   
o    Do peers initiate conversation with the student?
o    Does the student have friends with and without labels?
o    Does s/he have IEP objectives in social skills and opportunities to practice in the mainstream?
o    Do teachers design social opportunities around the school building as part of the student's special education support?
o    Do adults facilitate some of the student's social interactions as well as provide unstructured opportunities?
o    Do team members highlight strengths and help other students understand how to be a friend to the student?
o    Does the student have academic goals that correspond to content area classes?
o    Has the team designed accommodations so the student can participate meaningfully in classes?
o    Has the team decided on the best methods of assessment and grading?
o    Have general and special educators crossed traditional role boundaries to plan for the student's success?

The following questions can be answered for a specific student or groups of students.
o    Is the student in classes with his/her grade level peers? In other school spaces i.e. cafeteria, bus, computer lab...?
o    Does s/he arrive and depart at the same time?
o    Do peers initiate conversation with the student?
o    Does the student have friends with and without labels?
o    Does s/he have IEP objectives in social skills and opportunities to practice in the mainstream?
o    Do teachers design social opportunities around the school building as part of the student special education support?
o    Do adults facilitate some of the student's social interactions as well as provide unstructured opportunities?
o    Do team members highlight strengths and help other students understand how to be a friend to the student?
o    Does the student have academic goals that correspond to content area classes?
o    Has the team designed accommodations so the student can participate meaningfully in classes?
o    Has the team decided on the best methods of assessment and grading?
o    Have general and special educators crossed traditional role boundaries to plan for the student 's success?

General Curriculum Considerations:
o    What does the classroom teacher have as outcomes for all the students by the end of the year? (Does the student 's goals align with these?)
o    What does the curriculum, instruction, and assessment look like in the classroom? (Do the student 's general and special education teachers modify this in order to make it accessible to her, and other students with learning needs?)
o    What learning opportunities are present in the grade the student classes that will also benefit the student? (i.e. teachers use strategies to get to know students' personalities and learning styles, use multiple forms of assessment, build on students strengths, vary their teaching style, provide opportunities for hands on learning...?)

General Curriculum: District
o    What is the local curriculum?
o    Who teaches what where? Has any curriculum mapping process taken place?
o    Are special education teachers active on curriculum committees?
o    What are the standards for all students?
o    How are standards assessed at our local level?

Inclusive support options
o    Curriculum modifications (created by special education and support services with input from the classroom teacher, to assist the student in comprehending classroom material)
o    Instructional and assistive technology (keyboard, alphatalker, large print, tape recorded lecture, pre teaching with an ed tech....)
o    Specialized support staff (speech and language personnel, or other specialists working in the classroom)
o    Collaborative planning (co-planning between general and special educators)

Personnel Support Options
o    Natural support (support from a person in the environment, i.e. librarian, cafeteria worker, phys ed teacher, older students...)
o    Intermittent support (support only on certain days for certain activities)
o    Part time support
o    Peer tutor
o    Full time support staff

Questions for the PET
o    What is the general curriculum for her grade?
o    What are the grade level standards for all students?
o    What instructional strategies are being used in each of the classes?
o    What methods of assessment are being used?
o    Where does the student need support in order to participate successfully?

General curriculum considerations
o    In what specific ways does the student 's disability provide challenges to the student 's participation and achievement in the general curriculum?
o    What does the student need for support and/or specialized instruction?
o    How can this support be provided in the regular classroom?

Inclusive Lesson Design Process
1. The team examines the demands and evaluation criteria:
o    Can the student reach all the goals for this unit or task? If not, which are a priority?
o    What will successful completion mean for the student?
2. The team examines the structure of the instruction:
o    Are there opportunities for peer partnerships or varied grouping arrangements?
o    Has the team designed strategies for active student involvement?
o    Do you have strategies available to assist students (the student & others) to understand the directions and sequence of activities?
3. The team examines the learning environment:
o    What are the physical characteristics of the setting (the middle level classrooms, cafeteria, library...?) Are there individual physical considerations? (special seating, accessibility issues?)
o    What are the relationships among the students? What is the level of acceptance and engagement between them?
o    What are the classroom rules?
4. Examine the materials for learning:
o    Does the teacher use more than one method to present information to the class? (i.e. lecture, video, print, options within the 8 intelligences...)
o    Are there options available for different ways of responding?
o    Has the team met to develop a list of diverse accommodations?
5. Examine the support structure:
o    Where will the student need support in her grade classes? Beginning, middle . . . end? Is this a team decision?
o    Who could best provide the support?
o    If a peer provides support, has the student been given the necessary information? Who is monitoring this?
6. Arrange an alternate activity that encourages participation and interaction:
o    Are there specific goals for the student that cannot be met within a classroom activity?
o    What type of alternate activities with real life applications could be used for those goals that benefit all the students in the class?

How I Spent My Summer!

Elijah Steward

Elijah Steward is a 2000 Graduate of Valley High School in Bingham, Maine and a first-year student at the University of Maine. While his major is still officially undecided, he is hoping to major in marine biology or a related discipline. Elijah has recently addressed the New England SERVE meeting of Title V directors in Tewksbury, MA in October and travelled to the International TASH conference in Miami in December to present on Maine's Youth Leadership initiative. He works part time at the Center and can be reached at 581-1383 or at elijah.steward@umit.maine.edu

The National Leadership Conference for Youth with Disabilities accepted only 100 young adults between the ages of 18 and 24 from across the country for half a week in Bethesda, Maryland. The purpose of this conference was to learn and discuss leadership skills in the areas of Washington-based political structures, career development, and networking opportunities. Presented by the President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities, the conference also included representatives from such departments as the U.S. Department of Education, Social Security Administration, the National Council on Disability, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Maternal and Child Health Bureau, the Centers for Disease Control, and the Administration on Developmental Disabilities.

I had recently graduated from Valley High School in Bingham, ME, and had planned to spend my summer taking a course at the University of Maine. When I first heard of the conference I thought there was no chance I would be accepted for such an elite gathering of distinguished people and future leaders. The application required me to write an essay and fill out many forms and gather several letters of recommendations. I was surprised to hear the news that I was accepted to attend the National Leadership Conference! I was told over 400 people applied and that I should be thankful to be attending. I was!
On June 24th I set out for Washington DC and arrived just in time for registration. The attendees were divided into groups of 10 people and two mentors, and each group was assigned a color. For the next few days I would be part of the "white" team, which was frequently confused with the "cream" team. At 4:30 on the first day we had our keynote speaker, Judith Heumann, Assistant Secretary in the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, who gave an inspirational speech that made everyone excited and ready to begin the week.

Days two and three were dedicated to leadership training. Everyone attended Dale Carnegie's self-improving workshops, which were based on The Topics of Effective Communication Tools and Goal Setting in the Real World. In the afternoons everyone had a choice to attend a break out session of interest to them. Such break out sessions included Relationships, Advocacy, Independent Living, and Higher Education, to name a few. I chose Employment & Entrepreneurship, and Media, where I learned the do's and don'ts of getting your own business started, and how to get your opinions and ideas expressed through the media. Both the Dale Carnegie and break out sessions emphasized the importance of accepting one's disability to accomplish goals in a positive way. This message seemed to be the main point of the whole conference. Between these self-improvement workshops and breakout sessions there were speakers positioned throughout the day. The one that I will always remember is Justin Dart, founder of Justice for All. His speech hit the hearts of everyone in the room. He told us how he came to pursue a life dedicated to making life better for people with disabilities. At the end of his presentation he gave everyone a $5 bill autographed by him and his wife, stating "You have power, we love you."

Wednesday night everyone gathered together to create a Youth Policy Agenda, (see excerpt following this article) which outlined ideas on how the nation's laws and regulations need to improve matters for young people with disabilities. We would present this agenda on Thursday afternoon when we met with our state congressional delegations. Topics in the youth policy agenda included technology, employment, high school transition, teacher training, youth leadership, media, enforcement of laws, and services.
The next day was our day in Washington D.C. We all set out that morning, taking any kind of transportation we could find. I choose the Metro, the public trains in DC, with some of my friends. We all attended a briefing by the Administration Officials in the Old Executive Office building of the White House on what is actually taking place in Washington regarding topics about people with disabilities. After lunch it was time to meet with the representatives from our states. My friend and I got separated from our traveling group so we had to catch a taxi, something I had only done once in my life, but we eventually ended up at our meeting places. I met with Maine Senator Olympia Snow in the Capitol building and discussed the Youth Policy Agenda and several other topics regarding the issues of the youth with disabilities in Maine. After that her assistant gave me a tour of the capital building. I made my way back to the hotel, once again using the Metro.

Later that night there was a talent show. I was very impressed at the number of people who participated, and the talents that they decided to exhibit. Among the participants was Miss Iowa who gave a speech on how anything is possible if you just try hard enough. She followed with a spectacular floor show that included a baton, streamers, and flags and involved many flips and twists using only one hand. She was born with only one hand but it obviously didn't stop her from achieving her dream.

Our last day was short. We had a closing session and then everyone was off to catch their planes. It was hard to leave because I had made many new friends. Throughout the week we had all taken the Metro into Washington and toured all the monuments and tourist attractions together. Unfortunately we all live scattered across the U.S., so opportunities to visit are likely to be few and far between, if at all, but we do still keep in contact through e-mail.

The National Leadership Conference for Youth with Disabilities was by far the best conference I have ever attended. I learned so much in such a short time. I am applying to become a mentor for one of the groups next year, but even if I can't go as a mentor I still will try to attend the conference as a youth participant. I only hope that I can fully utilize the things that I learned at the conference in my state and community.

Note: Elijah has participated in youth leadership activities as a component of the Center's Maine Adolescent Transition Partnership for almost two years, including "Think College Day," which took place on the UMaine campus in August, 1999. It is my pleasure to welcome Elijah to campus and I look forward to supporting the numerous contributions I know he will make to raising the aspirations of other youth with disabilities through his mentoring and Youthspeak activities.
--Debbie Gilmer, Acting Director

Youth Policy Agenda Recommendations
Technology
o    Utilize the latest technology, including the internet, to communicate with the youth community
Employment
o    Provide additional opportunities for youth to receive work experience without it negatively affecting their SSI Benefits
o    Recommend that the Social Security Administration create a program specifically for youth in transition
o    Create additional youth related internships, job shadowing and volunteer programs directed at including disabled youth
Education Training
o    Recommend that federal and statewide agencies provide training on the basics of how to navigate systems. This would include understanding how to use support programs, the benefits and disincentives associated with transitioning to public supports, and could focus on basic understanding of SSI, Vocational Rehabilitation, and how national legislation affects the lives of youth with disabilities
o    Educate families through positive support and training on the importance of independence and youth leading their own lives
Teacher Training
o    Train teachers to support all students in moving to meaningful careers rather than transitioning to public support programs such as SSI-Modify general teacher certification to include a course on basic disability issues
Youth Leadership
o    Promote the development the funding of local and statewide youth leadership conferences and organizations as a method of training and promoting information dissemination
o    Support through funding and endorsement the development of programs at the state and local levels, which would involve youth mentoring youth
Media
o    Recommend the development of the public awareness campaign on disability issues in which concentrates on the message, "Everyone can work and everyone should work."
Services
o    Increase the number of partners in local One-Stop centers; include independent living and other community agencies

Third Annual Eastern Maine Child Care Symposium a Big Success!

Eileen McAvoy

The Third Annual Child Care Symposium was held on September 30 at Eastern Maine Technical College. It was a perfect fall day and had over 180 Early Care and Education Professionals gathered together to share with each other and learn new information from an impressive lineup of national experts in the field of Infant/Toddler care and education.

The symposium was the combined effort of the Bangor Area Training Coalition and a wonderful example of the strength of collaboration. The coalition activities were led by the staff at Penquis CAP Resource Development Center. Contributing partners included Eastern Maine Technical College; UMaine Center for Community Inclusion; Cooperative Extension; Maine Public Broadcasting System; University of Maine at Augusta, Bangor Campus; and Building Blocks Child Care, Inc. The event was structured to emphasize the importance of providing high quality infant/toddler care for all children-including children with special needs-as well as to acknowledge and celebrate the important work child care professionals do early day while caring for and educating young children. As one participant stated: "this was a great networking opportunity; it validates the importance of early child care; and is a reminder of the joy of child care!"

The format for the day consisted of three concurrently running sessions presented by nationally known infant-toddler experts. Presenters included Harold Ireton, Ph.D. who presented a workshop titled "Appreciating Children's Development/Integrating Parent and Teacher Observations." Dr. Ireton is a developmental psychologist from Minneapolis, Minnesota who has spent thirty-four years at the University of Minnesota teaching, counseling, and doing research in the development of young children, their parents, and the professionals who work with them. He has his own firm, Behavior Science Systems, Inc., and is the author of Child Development Inventories in Education and Health Care. Providers received observations material to bring back to their programs and use in their observations of children and to share with parents.

Betty Blaize of Breaux Bridge, Louisiana is an Infant/Toddler Specialist and a Early Head Start Monitor from Region VI-A. Ms. Blaize has a vast array of experience working with child development programs specializing in Infants and Toddlers. She studied with Louis Torelli and incorporated his ideas and slides into her presentation on Positive Spaces/Environments for Infants and Toddlers. Participants received many practical suggestions to take back to their centers and use in looking at the spaces.
Donna Bloomer of Cornelius, North Carolina is the coauthor of A Teacher's Guide to The Creative Curriculum. Ms. Bloomer trains for Teaching Strategies, Inc. of Washington DC. She shared with workshop participants the philosophy behind the curriculum and explored the role of the care giver/teacher in implementing this framework into their program. Ms. Bloomer's dynamic presentation provided participants with many ideas for working with infants and toddlers.

The presenters brought a richness to the training which was enhanced by their national perspective and the enthusiasm with which they shared their information with providers here in Maine. Following the workshop, the presenters spoke about how much they had enjoyed the opportunity to come to Maine and meet all of those who attended. For one of the presenters it was her first visit to Maine and she was very pleased to have the opportunity to come to Maine at such a beautiful time of year and to meet so many child care providers in Maine.

To round out the day and provide participants with knowledge about local resources, two separate panel discussions were held during lunch. One covered the topic of Positive Community Supports and included staff from WINGS, the RDC, CCI, Bureau of Special Needs, and Cooperative Extension. The focus of this panel was on the various community supports available for infant/toddler providers and parents of young children. The other panel, Career Development Resources, included representatives from the RDC, Maine PBS, CCI, EMTC, UMA, and the Maine Roads To Quality. This panel shared information about the array of educational opportunities available to early care and education providers interested in advancing their career in early childhood.

First time attendees found the symposium to be very informative and left with a lot of information to think about and to remember. Long time professionals enjoyed the networking and the opportunity to "pull everyone together". Many expressed the benefits of getting practical, hands-on information and having time during the day to renew old friendships and make new ones.
Funding for this symposium came from the Department of Human Services. The focus on infant/toddlers care for this symposium was chosen as a result of the increasing need for high quality child care for Maine's youngest children.
Eileen McAvoy is the Child Development Supervisor, Penquis CAP Resource Development Center. You can contact her at (207) 941-2840 or emcavoy@penquiscap.org

Teaming and Collaboration: Critically Reflective Work Groups

Guiding Our Efforts: Comments and Requests from the Field: We are in our first year of trying to be more inclusive. Everyone is struggling, special education and regular education teachers do not know how to collaborate to adapt the regular curriculum.
I would like to see a new vision for our school emerge: one that develops a new philosophy of community, raises aspirations, and is characterized by effective collaboration.

by Pam Flood

As the face of education changes, the demand for new skills and the assessment of those skills abound. Educators are being asked to become members of teams to design and align curriculum with the Maine Learning Results; to develop comprehensive local assessments; as well as to participate on Student Assistant Teams, Pupil Evaluation Teams, and grade level teams. The understanding of group dynamics and how to develop norms that allow a team to work efficiently and creatively, while drawing on the talents of all, requires time for reflection, assessment and discussion.

Team leaders can acquire skills that allow them to be more tuned into the dynamics of the groups they are supporting. When participants do not feel that they are offered the opportunity to become full members of the group, or that a group's goals and outcomes are predetermined, the group can become dysfunctional.

What are some of the signs or symptoms that is a team is working at less than its full capacity? One symptom that I found most concerning as a school administrator was groupthink, a term coined by Janis in 1972 (as cited in Johnson & Johnson, 2000, p. 302). This term describes the collective striving for unanimity that overrides group members' motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action which leads to (a) a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgement, and (b) the ignoring of external information inconsistent with the favored alternative course of action. How often in schools does groupthink and on inability to think outside the box hold educators from moving forward with school reform efforts? The overwhelming feeling that the problem is too big or too complex, the concern of being ostracized by colleagues, the avoidance of conflict, or the fear of being labeled a "trouble maker" by administration are a few of the reasons teams may fall into the trap of a groupthink process. While recognizing that this phenomenon has not always been linked to producing negative outcomes, it is clear that it does inhibit the ability to view a wider range of action alternatives.

What can teams do to prevent the phenomenon of groupthink and open the door for alternative views enabling the team to see solutions in a new light? Luckily, there are a variety of steps teams can take to safeguard against groupthink. As a team is forming it should discuss how the it's input is actually going to be utilized. The team leader needs to be clear about her intentions by (a) being explicit in terms of what actual power will team members will have, and (b) how the member's opinions and decisions will be used. If the leadership is very directive and team members do not feel safe in sharing their ideas, or if they feel that they are just pawns, members will not join fully in the group process. If, however, the leader of the team clearly wants to involve all members of the group to reach the most creative and effective decisions, then there are steps to take that can enrich the group experience as well as the ability of team members to think outside of the box:
1.    As teams are forming, develop a set of guidelines or norms to which all members agree to adhere. These include specifics on how team members will interact, how they will handle conflict, and how decisions will be made.
2.    Discuss the phenomenon of groupthink and develop ways to counteract the probability of a groupthink mentality. One idea is developing alternating roles for members of the team, such as a jargon buster, a devil's advocate, a timekeeper, and a groupthink detector.
3.    Take time to carefully examine decisions or actions through the lens of others, especially if the actions being discussed will affect other individuals. Questions such as: (a) How does this decision affect others?; (b) Are there ways for us to find out directly from the individuals how they view the situation and their ideas for solutions?; (c) What are the possible ways (positive and negative) this action may be viewed by the affected individuals and how do we know?; (d) What are all the positive ways that this solution addresses the issue?; and (e) What are the possible unintended negative consequences of this solution?
4.    Be sensitive when discussing solutions for other individuals ensuring that all members absolutely avoid stereotyped descriptions of the individuals they are considering.
5.    Utilize periodic check-ins with each member of the team to determine if all members feel free to share their opinions and ideas. Ask team members to describe how they know that this particular group is functioning at an effective level.

Although these are just a few steps to help teams maintain clear and open alternatives, there are many other options. When a group is working effectively and time for reflection, assessment and discussion of the team's process is built in as a part of the agenda, a variety of options will arise from the group members themselves.

As I move forward in my understanding of group dynamics, it is the human factor that keeps coming to the forefront as one of the most important ingredients in a team's success. The idea that all members of the team feel valued and necessary and that their ideas are considered in the process is the keystone to effective teaming. Time for reflection, assessment, and discussion of our team's relationship is essential if we want teams that are effective and creative. It is necessary for us to welcome the diversity of thought and solutions as we work together to improve our actions in the 21st century.

References:
Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, F.P. (2000). Joining together: Group theories and group skills 7th Edition. Needham Heights, MA; Allyn and Bacon.

Principal's Perspective
One of my greatest fears as an administrator was ineffective teams. I would sit in on team meetings and sometimes find myself cringing. I began to observe how deftly team members had gauged each other's trigger points and carefully avoided any topic that may bring about disagreement. There were members of some teams, who for whatever reason, held the power to control or stifle important conversations. Conversations that would have allowed the team to critically examine their practices and make determinations about the alignment or misalignment of those practices with the school's mission, as well as their own personal beliefs, values and assumptions about their students and education. I had observed teams actually hold individuals from venturing forward to becoming more effective educators because of the possible conflict that lurked on the horizon.

What was going on? I began to research and question the professors in my doctoral program. What I discovered is that there was much to be learned and shared with my staff on the dynamics of teaming. Questions began to inform my actions as I worked to support the development of effective teams. How do I as a leader model, discuss, and encourage the teams within my school to become truly effective? How do I help each team to become a group of adults who are critically reflective and able to honestly share their perceptions and ideas, without being afraid of conflict?

I was working with one school district supporting the staff as they began to discuss and examine their underlying values, beliefs and assumptions about education. Within the first hour of our work together a familiar question arose from one of the teachers, "But what happens if we discuss this and it causes a division on our team? Some of the members of our team support tracking and some don't. If we talk about this won't we get into an argument?" My response was, "maybe", but I believe it is possible and important to have this discussion in a way that values all members of the team. This issue is already having a big impact on what you do as educators. By engaging in conversations in an open and honest way perhaps you can examine those beliefs and begin to evaluate them in relationship to what your vision is for all children. Those beliefs are there whether you discuss them or not and can come to cause greater conflict if left unattended, or if the emotions they generate are avoided.

I have come to embrace the idea of educating staff so they clearly understand the dynamics of teaming. I belief that it is critically important to help each staff member develop the skills to engage in effective teaming, and to promote open conversations that consider the conditions and strategies needed to promote effective team experiences. As an administrator I began this work in part by helping teams establish working agreements, openly discussing some of the pitfalls and benefits of teaming, and most importantly in my view, how to regard conflict, work through it and come out with a more thoughtful decision because of the process.

This is not easy work and the development of effective teams does not happen over night. By taking the time to educate staff to the known dynamics of group work and helping them develop the needed skills to navigate the ins and outs of teaming we are establishing an opportunity to increase the quality and value of work produced by the teams.

When We Agree to Agree: A Portrait of Groupthink

by Eric Chapman

The tension in the room was palpable. The four managers and two engineers had argued for several minutes and had not come to a consensus. One of the managers, Jerry Mason, was especially tense. The client was on hold awaiting their decision, and this "brief" discussion had already gone on far longer than he intended.

The engineers repeated their concerns: according to their interpretation of the data, the device could fail in colder temperatures. The engineers drew sketches and showed pictures to support their belief. Mason, however, felt the evidence was inclusive. The company was under a lot of pressure. Several setbacks and delays had already stalled the project, and the client was eager to proceed. Another rescheduling could cost the company its lucrative contract. Mason was not as willing to risk the future of the corporation on the conjecture of its engineers, especially when it flew in the face of the company's previous statements about the device.

The discussion continued for several more minutes with neither side showing signs of weakening. Mason, eager to resolve their differences, proclaimed this was a management decision and called for a discussion between the four managers. One of the engineers, frustrated at his exclusion from the process, moved across the room to position himself in front of the managers. He sketched the device again, repeating his concerns, but stopped finally when he realized no one was listening. The second engineer, attempting to support his colleague, placed photographs of the failed device before the collection of managers, but soon retreated to the other side of the room under Mason's disapproving eye.

Mason called for a vote among the managers. All in favor of proceeding? Mason and two other managers voted yes almost immediately. Robert Lund, the fourth manager and the Vice President of Engineering, hesitated. Logically, what the engineers were saying made sense to him, but he also knew what was at stake. Mason saw Lund's hesitation and instructed him to "take off his engineering hat and put on his management hat." The vote was unanimous to proceed.

At 11:39 am on January 28, 1986, the space shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds into its launch, killing its seven passengers, including Christa McAuliffe, who was the be the first citizen and the first teacher in space. The explosion was later attributed to failed O-rings in a solid rocket booster. The true failure of the Challenger disaster, however, was not mechanical, but human. (Vaughan, 1996; Boisjoly, 2000)

It is easy for those of us with the advantage of both hindsight and distance to say to ourselves "if I had been at that meeting, things would have been different." Knowing how the story ended, it now seems incomprehensible that the managers of the company that produced the failed O-rings could have allowed Challenger to launch. By taking time to understand the events that led to the Challenger launch, however, we can come to a greater understanding of our own behavior, and of how we may collectively launch our own bad decisions every day.

Janis coined the term groupthink (as cited in Johnson & Johnson, 2000) as an unspoken drive for unanimity within a group that inhibits that group's ability to consider alternate views or courses of action. He created this term to help explain what were previously incomprehensible decisions made by otherwise intelligent, capable groups of people.
Janis outlined eight components of groupthink, which are described briefly below, as well as their application to the Challenger incident:

Invulnerability: Groups that are engaged in groupthink often take greater and greater risks stemming from an increasing belief that the group can do no wrong-that is it up to the challenge. Groupthink often inhibits a group's ability to realistically appraise the true dangers of a particular course of action. The managers of the company producing the O-rings ignored the warning signs, instead choosing to take what they convinced themselves to be a minimal risk.

Rationale: Those in groupthink frequently find ways to justify their actions even when those actions fly in the face of existing evidence. In the Challenger incident, managers were able to ignore the evidence presented by the engineers by classifying it as inconclusive. They chose instead to focus on the importance of the launch and on outside pressures, allowing them to marginalize issues of safety.

Morality: Those in groupthink often believe unquestioningly in the inherent rightness of the group's actions. The morality of the managers in the Challenger incident is evidenced by Mason's call to exclude the engineers and leave the decision to the managers. Only they were equipped to make the final decision.

Stereotypes: Groups in groupthink often engage in over-simplistic views of outside parties-views that limit the palate of viable alternatives. The managers who approved the launch decision later stated that if they had attempted to delay launch, NASA's reaction would have been one of incredulity, not responsiveness. Since they assumed NASA would not heed their warning, there was no point trying.

Pressure: Members in groupthink will apply direct pressure to any group member who may express doubts about a particular group decision. At the moment when the managers voted, Mason noticed Lund's hesitation and intervened by reminding him of his managerial duties-of his responsibility to the company as a whole. That brief statement was enough pressure to silence Lund and to vote with the others.

Self-censorship: Members of a group in groupthink often silence their own doubts in favor of the perceived opinions of the group. Whatever doubts group members may have remain unspoken, and are therefore not given credence even if those doubts are shared by others. In the final manager vote of the Challenger incident, Lund chose not to express his concerns about the O-rings, thereby allowing any doubts held by the others to remain isolated and unspoken as well.

Unanimity: When the entire group is in agreement, responsibility is shared and diffused. The unanimity of the group also serves to reinforce its decisions. If we all agree, then it must be the right course of action. Regardless of Lund's vote, three of the four managers would still have voted in favor of launch. It was important, however, that all of the managers agree, because a unanimous vote becomes unquestionable.

Mindguards: Members of a group will protect each other from dissenting opinions. Individuals members will attempt to block and exclude those who might "stir the pot" so that the cohesiveness of the group is not challenged. In the Challenger incident, Mason excluded the engineers from the discussion and decision-making process, thereby protecting the managers from an opposing viewpoint.

While it is unlikely that our mistakes will culminate in one terrifying moment when the sky is aflame, our actions are no less important than those who sent Challenger on its fated final mission. The impact of our decisions have far reaching consequences-consequences of which we will only become aware when the critical moment has passed and opportunity has turned to hindsight. Every decision we make is vital. Lives are always at stake.

References
Boisjoly, R. M. (October, 2000). Ethical Decisions - Morton Thiokol and the Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster [On-Line]. Available: http://onlineethics.org/essays/shuttle/bois.html

Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, F.P. (2000). Joining together: Group theories and group skills 7th Edition. Needham Heights, MA; Allyn and Bacon.
Vaughan, D. (1996). The Challenger Launch Decision. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Teacher's Perspective

Educators hear a great deal about utilizing cooperative groups in class. I am a strong believer in this technique as well, but I have come to recognize the importance of educating my students about the dynamics of working in groups. After teaching middle school for many years it was the students who actually helped me recognize how desperately they needed to learn how to engage in effective group work.

I first began using cooperative group work in the late 80's. I found many benefits in using it, but was often brought back to reality when debriefing with my students about the process. Their frustration level was often very high-even when I had observed what I thought to be an effective group. I began to question and note what was going on with my students to figure out how to help them resolve some of the issues they identified. Often the issues revolved around other members not listening to their ideas, feeling like they were carrying too much of the load, that they were being left out of important decisions, or not feeling like the others in the group recognized their efforts. I began to work with the class as a whole to identify and brainstorm out a variety ways that they could discuss and address these issues as their groups were forming. I also gave students lessons on listening skills, how to actively listen to one another and how to let others know when they did not feel they were being heard. We role-played a variety of scenarios before we ever began working in the groups. It turned out not only be a lot of fun but a rich learning experience. I, as seems to be my pattern, learned much more from my students than they learned from me. Together we began a journey that made a difference not only in group work, but in our classroom as a whole. These discussions and role plays actually changed how students interacted in my class, and we began to see how truly interdependent we were as a learning community. There is a lot of research that supports the need to help students learn group skills before they can engage effectively in cooperative group work. As for me, I had the opportunity to see it first hand.


Graduate Coursework in Early Intervention/Early Childhood Education

The University of Maine College of Education and Human Development

Courses which may be applied to the Maine Teacher of Young Children with Disabilities Birth to School-Age Five endorsement will be offered through the University of Maine beginning in the Spring 2001 semester. These courses will be available to students throughout the state and will employ distance technologies (ITV, compressed video, or ATM and computer conferencing) and evening, Saturday, or one-week Intensive Summer Institute scheduling formats. Students will need access to a computer with e-mail and internet capability. A family-centered, developmentally appropriate, inclusive perspective will be emphasized in all courses.
Spring 2001
SEI 501
Typical And Atypical Development In Infancy And Early Childhood
3 Credits. 8:00 - 5:00;
1/27 - UM, 2/17 - UMA, 3/17 - UM, 4/21 - UMA, 5/5 - UM
Examines theories and processes of development and the impact of at-risk and disabling conditions on the development of infants and young children. Incorporates a multicultural perspective and an integrative view of early development.
For information about registration for classes call Becky Libby at 207-581-2444.
For further information about the courses contact either Sandy Doctoroff at 207-581-1437. E-mail: sandra.doctoroff@umit.maine.edu or

The Center continues to offer innovative and convenient graduate based courses in disability over the World Wide Web.
For more information on the following Spring 2001 semester courses call Sue Russell at: 207-581-1381, TTY 207-581-3328.
DIS 690 Selected Topics: Disability and Rural Long Term Care Policy will provide for examination and analysis of the history and structure of the long-term care service delivery system and the public policy that created the system (Instructor: Elizabeth DePoy).
DIS 650 Research in Disability Studies: Outcomes Research in Long Term Care introduces the student to the spectrum of empirical research methods that can be used to answer questions and queries of concern to providers of long term care (Instructor: Dennis Fitzgibbons).

A Great IDEA

The IDEA Practices Web site (www.ideapractices.org) and its accompanying monthly e-mail newsletter, IDEAnews, are valuable resources for teachers, related services providers, administrators, families, advocates, and all others interested in improving educational results for students with disabilities. They are designed to provide useful and timely information and resources to help professionals and families understand and implement the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA '97).
www.ideapractices.org

This fall, new subscribers who enter the code DMSEPTAD into the Promotional Code field on our mailing list registration form will be automatically entered to win a free Discover IDEA CD 2000.
IDEA Practices and IDEAnews are services of the ASPIIRE and ILIAD projects, two of four national IDEA Partnership Projects funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs

The Center for Community Inclusion and Disability Studies presents
Leadership in Staff Development
Supporting Persons with Disabilities Across the Age Span
(DIS 490)
Wednesdays, 4:00 to 6:45 pm
beginning January 26, 2001
Who should take the course? Faculty and staff development leaders who provide training entry level and pre-service training either to paraprofessinals in schools or to direct support staff in agencies supporting individuals with developmental disabilities.
Participants will:
o    Learn strategies for teaching staff or students to provide person/family centered supports;
o    Become familiar with a variety of specific strategies their staff can use to assist people with disabilities to become more active members of their communities; and
o    Learn how to collaborate with persons with disabilities and family members in the delivery of training
You can register for this course for undergraduate credits, graduate credits, or Continuing Education Units (CEU's). For more information about this course and the registration process, contact
Susan Russell at (207) 581-1381 or e-mail: susan.russell@umit.maine.edu

Tell us what you think.
We'd love your feedback on this issue. Write to us at:
ccidsmail@umit.maine.edu

The LEARNS Team:
Debbie Gilmer: Project Co-Director
Lu Zeph: Project Co-Director
Pam Flood: Inclusive Education Coordinator
Linda Labas: Early Care Coordinator
Betsy Enright: Education Specialist
Martie Kendrick: Education Specialist
Alan Kurtz: Education Specialist
Kathy Son: Project Specialist
Maria Timberlake: Education Specialist
Eric Chapman: Publications Specialist
Alan Parks: Coordinator of Dissemination and Technology
Liz Depoy: Coordinator of Research and Evaluation
To contact anyone on the LEARNS team, call (207) 581-1084.
LEARNS is funded by the Maine Department of Education under a grant from US Department of Education (CFDA # 84.027A) under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

Upon request, this issue of FACTS is available on audiotape and on diskette in ASCII format. It will also be made available in other formats to accommodate the needs of individuals with disabilities.
FACTS is available on our web site in both Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) and html formats at www.ccids.umaine.edu
Contact:
Center for Community Inclusion and Disability Studies
5717 Corbett Hall
University of Maine
Orono, ME 04469-5717
Phone: 207-581-1084
TTY: 207-581-3328
Fax: 207-581-1231
Email: ccidsmail@umit.maine.edu

The University of Maine Non-Discrimination Policy
In complying with the letter and spirit of applicable laws and in pursuing its own goals of diversity, the University of Maine System shall not discriminate on the grounds of race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, national origin or citizenship status, age, disability, or veterans status in employment, education, and all other areas of the University. The University provides reasonable accommodations to qualified individuals with disabilities upon request. Questions and complaints about discrimination in any area of the University should be directed to the Director of Equal Opportunity, University of Maine, Room 101, 5754 N. Stevens Hall, Orono, ME 04469-5754, 581-1226 (Voice and TTY).

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